1.11: Lab 11 - The Ocean-Atmosphere System

Learning Objectives

• Differentiate between a normal year and an El Niño year in terms of oceanic and atmospheric circulation patterns.
• Explain how sea surface temperatures change during an El Niño event and how those changes impact weather around the world.
• Describe how upwelling affects nutrient concentrations.
• Identify the causes of ocean acidification.
• Explain the impact ocean acidification has on coral reef systems.

Introduction

The ocean and atmosphere are connected. They work together to move heat and freshwater across the globe. Atmospheric winds and ocean current circulations move warm water toward the poles and colder water toward the equator. The ocean can store much more heat than the land surfaces on the Earth. The majority of the thermal energy at the Earth’s surface is stored in the ocean. Thus, the absorption and movement of energy on the Earth is related to the ocean-atmosphere system.^[189]

The ocean couples with the atmosphere in two main ways (Figure 11.1). The first way is physically, through the exchange of heat, water, and momentum. Covering more than 70% of the Earth's surface and containing about 97% of its surface water, the ocean stores vast amounts of energy in the form of heat. The ocean receives most of its heat along the equator, where incoming solar radiation is about double that received at the poles. Hence, sea surfaces are much warmer along the equator than at the poles. The ocean has a high temperature and momentum "inertia", or resistance to change. Relative to the atmosphere, it has a very slow circulation system, so changes in its systems generally occur over much longer timescales than in the atmosphere, where storms can form and dissipate in a single day. The ocean changes over periods from months to years to decades, whereas the atmosphere changes over periods of minutes to hours to days. The interactions between ocean and atmosphere are fully nonlinear, and occur over decades, which is why their "dialogue" is so hard to interpret.^[190]

Figure 11.1: Ocean and Atmosphere Connections. Figure and text by NASA’s Earth Observatory are in the public domain

The ocean and atmosphere move because they are fluid. The speed and direction of air and sea currents are determined primarily by air temperature gradients. As heat rises and eventually escapes the ocean to warm the overlying atmosphere, it creates air temperature gradients and, consequently, winds. In turn, winds push against the sea surface and drive ocean current patterns. Over time, a complex system of currents was established whereby the ocean transports a tremendous amount of heat toward the poles. Because heat escapes more readily into a cold atmosphere than a warm one, the northward flow of ocean and air currents is enhanced by the flow of heat escaping into the atmosphere and, ultimately, into outer space.³

In this lab, you will investigate just two components of the ocean-atmosphere system:

➢ El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), which shifts large-scale atmospheric circulation patterns and impacts precipitation levels as well as ocean nutrient concentrations.

➢ Ocean acidification, which has occurred due to the increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere since the Industrial Revolution began.

Part A. El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a climate phenomenon on Earth that has the ability to alter atmospheric circulation. This is important because atmospheric circulation influences sea surface temperature, air temperature, and precipitation around the world. ENSO refers to changes in sea surface temperatures and atmospheric pressure that result in unusual weather patterns in the Pacific Ocean. The El Niño part of ENSO refers to the warming of surface waters and the Southern Oscillation part of ENSO refers to changes in atmospheric pressure. You have learned that air molecules move away from areas of high pressure and into areas of low pressure. This phenomenon causes regions with high pressure systems to experience dry and clear skies as opposed to regions with low pressure systems that experience humid and cloudy skies. In low pressure systems, air masses converge, rise, and condense, resulting in precipitation. Therefore, low pressure systems bring more precipitation than high pressure systems.

Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)

1. Understanding the impact of high pressure versus low pressure systems is essential to explain ENSO. Figure 11.2 shows a low atmospheric pressure and a high atmospheric pressure. Label the high atmospheric pressure with an H and the low atmospheric pressure with an L.

Figure 11.2: Cross-Sections of Two Types of Atmospheric Pressure. Figure adapted from the National Weather Service is in the public domain

Exercise \(\PageIndex{2}\)

2. In one to two sentences, explain why high atmospheric pressure systems are associated with dry, sunny conditions.

El Niño events occur every 2 to 7 years off the west coast of South America. The first El Niño events were recognized by fishers off the west coast of Peru as they observed warmer waters impact their fisheries. Spanish immigrants in Peru named this phenomenon El Niño after the “Christ Child” as it normally occurs near Christmastime. Because El Niño is not predictable and not considered a typical cycle, it is important to understand how El Niño impacts weather, ocean currents, and the health of coastal fisheries.

Check It Out! ENSO Outlook

NOAA Climate shows the current status of ENSO on their website. This website also has more information on ENSO and its impact on the United States and around the globe.

Figure 11.3: Oceanic Circulation Patterns During a Normal Year and an El Niño Year. Figure by Waverly Ray is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

In a normal year, trade winds blow from the east across the tropical Pacific Ocean just north and south of the equator (see Figure 11.3, top). These winds push warm surface water toward the western Pacific near Asia and Australia. As warm surface waters move west, deep, cold, nutrient-rich water in the eastern Pacific and along the west coast of South America rises up to the surface in a process called upwelling (see Figure 11.4). This nutrient-rich water is made up of nitrates and phosphates, which are vital nutrients for phytoplankton that live near the surface. Phytoplankton are producers; they use sunlight to process their own food through photosynthesis. Consumers are animals in the food chain that do not make their own food and rely on healthy populations of producers to serve as a food source. Some examples of consumers in the ocean are clams, fish, and whales.

Figure 11.4: Upwelling. Figure adapted from NOAA is in the public domain

During an El Niño event, warm waters are pushed away from the western Pacific and pulled toward the eastern Pacific in what is called a Kelvin Wave (Figure 11.3, bottom). This Kelvin Wave travels along the equator, which is a region that receives more insolation throughout the year than other latitudes. Because the Coriolis effect is nonexistent along the equator, the Kelvin Wave travels slowly, giving it time to gain heat from the Sun as it approaches the west coast of South America. This wave of warm water then blocks the colder nutrient-rich water from rising up and the process of upwelling is reduced or sometimes prevented in this area.

Because upwelling is significantly reduced during an El Niño event, marine life that depends on phytoplankton as a food source will starve or move to cooler waters where upwelling occurs, leaving the region desolate. Fishers in South America can experience significant financial loss as seafood populations decrease dramatically due to mass migration during an El Niño event.

In addition to changes in oceanic circulation in the Pacific, atmospheric pressure also changes during an El Niño event. In a normal year, the western tropical Pacific experiences low pressure systems that bring high amounts of precipitation between August and December. During an El Niño year, low pressure systems over Asia and Australia leave as high pressure systems move in (Figure 11.5). High pressure systems result in air molecules moving away from each other, which results in dry, clear skies. Precipitation decreases and many regions experience a prolonged period of drought.

Figure 11.5: Oblique Map View of El Niño. Figure by NOAA Climate is in the public domain

Exercise \(\PageIndex{3}\)

3. Refer to Figure 11.5.

1. How does the change from a low pressure system to a high pressure system during an El Niño event impact the weather in Southeast Asia and Australia? Explain your response in one to two sentences.

2. What parts of the world have thunderstorm clouds during an El Niño event? Explain why these areas have low pressure systems in one to two sentences.

Mapping El Niño Circulation Patterns

Figure 11.6 shows global wind patterns and circulation cells.

Figure 11.6: Typical Atmospheric Circulation Patterns on Earth. Figure by Kaidor is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0

Exercise \(\PageIndex{4}\)

4. On the following normal year map (Figure 11.7 top), sketch and label the following. Tip: refer to Figures 11.3 and 11.6.

1. northeast trade winds,

2. southeast trade winds,

3. south equatorial current,

4. south pacific current,

5. Peru current, and

6. Labeled textboxes on Figure 11.3.

Figure 11.7: Maps for Labeling Exercise. Figure by Waverly Ray is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

5. On the El Niño year map (Figure 11.7 bottom), sketch and label the following. Tip: refer to Figures 11.3 and 11.6.
   1. northeast trade winds,
   2. southeast trade winds,
   3. south equatorial current,
   4. south pacific current,
   5. the Kelvin Wave,
   6. Peru current, and
   7. Labeled textboxes on Figure 11.3.

6. Refer to your labeled maps in Figure 11.7.

1. During a normal year, in which direction do the trade winds travel?

2. During an El Niño year, in which direction do trade winds travel?

1. Toward which continent do these winds push warm surface waters?

2. What is the name of the warm ocean current that travels toward South America? In one to two sentences, explain how this current gains heat as it travels east.

3. Use Your Critical Thinking Skills: What is the impact of El Niño on California? Explain your response in one to two sentences. Hint: Refer to Figure 11.5.

Nutrient Concentrations and El Niño

Nutrient concentrations are levels of dissolved nutrients like nitrogen or phosphorus that are essential for ocean life. Nutrient concentrations vary based on longitude and ocean depth. Table 11.1 shows typical phosphate nutrient concentrations in the Pacific Ocean according to ocean depth.

Table 11.1: Typical Nutrient Concentrations (mg/L) based on Ocean Depth (meters)

Point	Longitude	Ocean Depth (meters)	Phosphate (PO4) (milliliters per liter of ocean water)
1	124°W	50	0.5
2	123°W	150	2.0
3	124°W	250	2.5
4	121.5°W	400	3.5

Figure 11.8 shows the concentration of phosphate off the coast of California based on data collected by the California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigations (CalCOFI) during an El Niño event. The lines represent milliliters of phosphate per liter of ocean water (ml/L).

Figure 11.8: Phosphate Nutrient Concentrations during an El Niño event. Figure by Waverly Ray adapted from T. James Noyes, Jr. is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

Exercise \(\PageIndex{5}\)

7. Refer to Figure 11.8.

1. Use Your Critical Thinking Skills: Why might nutrient concentrations increase closer to land?

2. Color the water with nutrient concentrations higher than 2 mg/L green.

3. Color the water with nutrient concentrations lower than 2 mg/L orange.

4. How would upwelling from green sections (deeper water) improve the health of fish populations in the orange sections (surface waters)?

5. Describe how low nutrient concentrations impact the food chain in the ocean.

8. Plot and label the data points provided in Table 11.1 onto Figure 11.8. These data points represent phosphate nutrient concentrations during a typical year.

9. Compare the typical year data points and the lines shown for the El Niño event on Figure 11.8.

1. Overall, are the nutrient concentrations during an El Niño event higher or lower than the typical year? Tip: compare values at the same depths.

2. In one to two sentences, explain this trend.

Carbon Dioxide and El Niño

Atmospheric carbon dioxide has increased steadily since 1960. Data shows that the long-term rise in atmospheric CO₂ (due to human activities) is more pronounced during El Niño years. In the equatorial Pacific, as the warm pool propagates eastward, clouds and rainfall move with it and leave the Western Pacific in dry conditions that often lead to drought across Indonesia, southeast Asia, and northern Australia. The problems of drought are compounded by slash-and-burn land clearing. For example, in Indonesia it is common for farmers to clear-cut forests for lumber and to burn rainforest to develop the land. Normally, these fires are extinguished by the consistent rains that fall in the tropics. But when the rain dries up during a strong El Niño, those fires burn uncontrolled. Massive El Niño-fueled fires were blamed for thousands of premature deaths from air pollution in 1997-98 and contributed to as many as 100,000 deaths in 2015-16, according to a recent study by Harvard University scientists. Wildfires also release extra carbon dioxide into the air. Vegetation that is stressed from heat and drought cannot absorb as much atmospheric carbon as it normally takes up during photosynthesis. Because of this, atmospheric CO₂ (as measured at the Mauna Loa observatory in Hawai’i) has less of a seasonal decline during the Northern Hemisphere growing season. Thus, the rise in atmospheric CO₂ is more pronounced during El Niño years (Figure 11.9).^[8]

Figure 11.9: Growth Rate of Carbon Dioxide at Mauna Loa. Figure and text by NASA Earth Observatory are in the public domain

Exercise \(\PageIndex{6}\)

10. In one to two sentences, explain the reasons why El Niño events are associated with increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide.

The next section of the lab goes into more details on how the overall rising levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere affect the oceans and ocean life.

Part B. Ocean Acidification

The ocean is a wonderful system that provides life to millions of marine plants and animals. Marine life is able to thrive in the ocean because seawater is composed of salt. Salt is the result of a base neutralizing an acid; this means that seawater is a fairly neutral zone, with a pH of 8.1. pH measures the amount of hydrogen ions that exist in a given substance (Figure 11.10). The more hydrogen ions present, the lower the potential for hydrogen to exist; therefore, high concentrations of hydrogen ions yield a low pH and these substances are more acidic. The fewer hydrogen ions present, the greater the potential for hydrogen to exist; therefore, low concentrations of hydrogen ions is indicative of a high pH and a substance that is more basic. Minor changes in pH concentrations can have major impacts. In fact, a simple change of one unit on the pH scale will change the concentration of hydrogen ions by a factor of 10, but a change in two units on the pH scale will change in the concentration of hydrogen ions by a factor of 100! This means a minor change in pH in seawater can negatively impact marine life. When seawater becomes more acidic, marine life with calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) shells and structures weaken and do not fully develop.

Figure 11.10: pH Scale with Examples of Solutions. Figure by Waverly Ray is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

You have learned in previous labs that carbon dioxide (CO₂) is a vital greenhouse gas on Earth. CO₂ not only exists in the air, it is also taken in by plants, animals, and the ocean. As seawater absorbs CO₂, water and carbon dioxide combine and form carbonic acid (H₂CO₃). Because H₂CO₃ is a weak acid, this reaction causes H₂CO₃ to break apart. The result produces hydrogen ions (H+) and bicarbonate ions (HCO₃^-).

To keep CO₂ concentrations balanced both in the atmosphere and on the surface, plants, animals, and the oceans store CO₂ in various forms. In fact, the oceans store approximately 35% of all CO₂ naturally emitted on Earth. However, in the last three hundred years humans have burned fossil fuels for energy, an activity that releases CO₂ into the atmosphere. As the rate of burning greenhouse gases increases, the amount of CO₂ that exits also increases. As concentrations of CO₂ increase, the oceans increase their intake of CO_{2 .}

Shelled organisms and corals extract calcium ions (Ca²⁺) and carbonate ions (CO₃^2-) from seawater that combine into solid crystals of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃). As carbon dioxide concentrations increase in the ocean, pH levels drop, resulting in decreased concentrations of carbonate ions (CO₃^2-). As carbonate ions are reduced, seawater becomes acidic, a process called ocean acidification (OA) as shown in Figure 11.11. Because carbonate ions (CO₃^2-) are instrumental in the development of shelled creatures and coral colonies, acidic seawater prevents corals from growing and developing strong structures.

Figure 11.11: Ocean Acidification Process. Figure by NOAA is in the public domain

Exercise \(\PageIndex{7}\)

11. Refer to Figure 11.11. How does CO₂ absorbed by the ocean prevent coral growth?

Ocean Acidification Experiment

Materials needed:

➢ 2 beakers with vinegar

➢ 2 beakers with water

➢ 2 limestone pebbles

➢ 2 scoops of CaCO₃ powder (calcium carbonate)

➢ Timer (set at 10 minutes and then 30 minutes)

Step 1

Place one scoop of calcium carbonate in the beaker with vinegar and one scoop of calcium carbonate in the beaker with water. Place one limestone pebble in the beaker with vinegar and one limestone pebble in the beaker with water. Set the timer for 10 minutes.

Step 2

Review Table 11.2, which represents a study done on estimated changes in marine life by 2100 due to decreases in pH in seawater. Then, answer the question below. Note: the table is divided into groups of animals, specific animals, and their responses to ocean acidification. For example, “algae” is a group, while fleshy algae are a specific animal, and +22% growth is a response to ocean acidification.

➢ Growth refers to changes in biomass, sizes, tissue, and rates of growth.

➢ Abundance refers to changes in the number of individuals as well as changes to the coverage, or spatial distribution, of individuals.

➢ Survival refers to changes to mortality rates.

➢ Calcification refers to changes to the production of calcium carbonate shells and structures by marine animals.

➢ Development refers to changes in embryonic or larval development.

Table 11.2: Ocean Acidification Effects among Key Taxonomic Groups. Adapted from CoastAdapt; decorative images from Unsplash from top to bottom: David Clode, Peter Boshra, NOAA, Q.U.I, Felipe Portella, and Ganapathy Kumar

Group	Example Organisms	Decorative Image	Main Response
Algae	Fleshy algae, diatoms, calcifying algae		+22% growth for fleshy algae +17% growth for diatoms -80% abundance for calcifying algae
Mollusks	Clams, scallops, mussels, oysters, pteropods, abalone, conchs, and cephalopods (squid, cuttlefish, octopuses)		-34% survival -40% calcification
Echinoderms	Sea urchins, sea cucumbers, starfish		-10% growth -11% development
Corals	Warm and cold water corals		-32% calcification -47% abundance
Crustaceans	Shrimps, prawns, crabs, lobsters, copepods		Relatively resistant to changes in ocean pH
Finfish	Herring, sardines, anchovies, tuna, bonitos, billfishes, flounders, halibut, cod, haddock		Loss of habitat and food supply with possible effects on behavior, fitness, and larval survival

Exercise \(\PageIndex{8}\)

12. Refer to Table 11.2.

1. Which animal is expected to experience the largest decline in abundance? Why might that be?

2. List three animals that are expected to experience a 40% decline in calcification.

3. Why might echinoderms experience the least amount of decline in growth and development compared to other groups?

4. Finfish are indirectly affected by ocean acidification. Explain in two to three sentences how finfish are indirectly affected and why they might not experience large declines in growth and development compared to other groups.

5. Which species group is expected to experience the least amount of change with ocean acidification?

Step 3

After the CaCO₃ and limestone pebble have been in the water and the vinegar for 10 minutes observe what has happened to both materials.

Exercise \(\PageIndex{9}\)

13. Describe your observations of the CaCO₃ and limestone pebble.

Step 4

Reset the timer for 30 minutes.

Step 5

Read the following information provided by CoastAdapt and then answer the questions below.

Changes in marine ecosystems will have consequences for human societies, which depend on the goods and services these ecosystems provide. The implications for society could include substantial revenue declines, loss of employment and livelihoods, and other indirect economic costs. Socioeconomic impacts associated with the decline of the following ecosystem services are expected:

➢ Food: Ocean acidification has the potential to affect food security. Commercially and ecologically important marine species will be impacted, although they may respond in different ways. Mollusks such as oysters and mussels are among the most sensitive groups. By 2100, the global annual costs of mollusk loss from ocean acidification could be over US$100 billion for a business-as-usual (RCP8.5) CO₂ emissions pathway.

➢ Coastal protection: Marine ecosystems such as coral reefs protect shorelines from the destructive action of storm surges and cyclones, sheltering the only habitable land for several island nations. This protective function of reefs prevents loss of life, property damage, and erosion, and has been valued at US$9 billion per year.

➢ Tourism: This industry could be severely affected by the impacts of ocean acidification on marine ecosystems (e.g. coral reefs). In Australia, the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park attracts about 1.9 million visitors each year and generates more than US$3.9 billion to the Australian economy.

➢ Carbon storage and climate regulation: The capacity of the ocean to absorb CO₂ decreases as ocean acidification increases. More acidic oceans are less effective in moderating climate change.^[203]

Exercise \(\PageIndex{10}\)

14. What is the expected financial loss for businesses if mollusk populations continue to decline due to ocean acidification?

15. How many people visit the Great Barrier Reef every year?

16. How much revenue does this generate for Australia?

17. Why would this business potentially have a significant decline in revenue if ocean acidification increases in the future?

Step 6

After the CaCO₃ and limestone pebble have been in the water and the vinegar for 30 additional minutes observe what has happened to both pieces. Continue on to the next section of the lab as you are waiting.

Exercise \(\PageIndex{11}\)

18. Describe your observations of the CaCO₃ and limestone pebble.

Anthropogenic Impacts on Ocean Acidification

Humans began burning fossil fuels in the mid-1700s and early 1800s for energy during a period called the Industrial Revolution. As fossil fuels burn, carbon is released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide (CO₂), the greenhouse gas mentioned earlier.

When carbon dioxide settles on the ocean and mixes with the water, it is partially converted into four things: carbonic acid (H₂CO₃), hydrogen ions (H+), bicarbonate (HCO^3–), and carbonate ions (CO₃^2–). A CO_2-derived chemical species in the water is known as dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC).

Table 11.3 provides data related to ocean acidification. Calcite and aragonite are two calcium carbonate minerals created by ocean organisms such as corals and mollusks. PPM stands for parts per million and mol/kg stands for moles per kilogram.

Table 11.3: Changes in Oceanic Concentrations from the Preindustrial Period to 2100

Variable	Preindustrial (1750)	Recent (2013)	Projected (2100)
Atmospheric concentration of CO2 (ppm)	280	380	560
Carbonic Acid, H2CO3 (mol/kg)	9	13	19
Bicarbonate ion, HCO^3^-(mol/kg)	1,768	1,867	1,976
Carbonate ion, CO3^2^- (mol/kg)	225	185	141
Total dissolved inorganic carbon (mol/kg)	2,003	2,065	2,136
Average pH of surface oceans	8.18	8.07	7.92
Calcite saturation	5.3	4.4	3.3
Aragonite saturation	3.4	2.8	2.1

Exercise \(\PageIndex{12}\)

19. In two to three sentences, describe how concentrations of atmospheric CO₂ have changed and are projected to change from the Preindustrial Revolution to 2013 and then to 2100.

To better understand how concentrations change over time, you can do a basic percentage of change calculation. This includes looking at the difference in concentrations from one year to another and then dividing that value by the value of the earlier year. For example, if you want to see how bicarbonate ion (HCO^3-) mol/kg have changed from 1750 to 2013 you would calculate the following:

Changes in bicarbonate ion (HCO³-) mol/kg from 1750 to 2013

Value for 1750 Value for 2013 Difference Percent change

1768 1867 1867-1768 = 99 99/1768 = 0.05 or 5%

Exercise \(\PageIndex{13}\)

20. Use the data provided in Table 11.3 to calculate the percent change for each variable in order to complete Table 11.4. For each variable, indicate whether the percent change was an increase or decrease. Using the bicarbonate ion example from above, the correct answer would be 5% decrease.

Table 11.4: Percent Change of Ocean Acidification Variables

Variable	Percent Change from 1750 to 2013	Percent Change from 2013 to 2100
Atmospheric concentration of CO2 (ppm)
Carbonic Acid, H2CO3 (mol/kg)
Bicarbonate ion, HCO^3^-(mol/kg)
Carbonate ion, CO3^2^- (mol/kg)
Total dissolved inorganic carbon (mol/kg)
Average pH of surface oceans
Calcite saturation
Aragonite saturation

21. Based on your calculations shown in Table 11.4, how many years did it take atmospheric CO₂ to increase by 36%?

22. Based on your calculations shown in Table 11.4, how many years will it take for atmospheric CO₂ to increase by 47%?

23. Compare the rate of change in CO₂ from 1750 to 2013 and from 2013 to 2100.

1. Is the rate of change in CO₂ from 2013 to 2100 greater or less than the rate of change from 1750 to 2013?

2. In one to two sentences, explain the variables that influence the rate of change.

24. Use Your Critical Thinking Skills: What actions do you think can be taken to decrease this rate of change in CO₂? List at least five actions.

Figure 11.12 graphs atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂ in ppm) and seawater carbon dioxide (pCO₂ in μatm) on the left y-axis, and pH change on the right y-axis, from 1958 to 2012 for the North Pacific ocean.

Figure 11.12: Time Series of Carbon Dioxide and Ocean pH at Mauna Loa, Hawai’i. Figure by NOAA Pacific Marine Environmental Library is in the public domain

25. Refer to Figure 11.12.

1. What year did scientists begin collecting data for concentrations of carbon dioxide and pH level in seawater (according to the graph)?

1. Use Your Critical Thinking Skills: Why do you think scientists began collecting data for concentrations of carbon dioxide and pH level during this year?

2. Describe the changes in atmospheric CO₂, seawater pCO₂, and seawater pH from 1958 to 2012.

3. What relationship do you observe between CO₂ and pH? What explains this relationship?

4. List the impacts of lowered pH levels in the ocean.

Part C. Wrap-Up

Consult with your geography lab instructor to find out which of the following wrap-up questions you should complete. Attach additional pages to answer the questions as needed.

Exercise \(\PageIndex{14}\)

26. What is the most important idea that you learned in this lab? In two to three sentences, explain the concept and why it is important to know.

27. What was the most challenging part of this lab? In two to three sentences, explain why it was challenging. If nothing challenged you in the lab, write about what you think challenged your classmates.

28. What is one question that you have about what you learned in this lab? Write your question along with one to two sentences explaining why you think your question is important to ask.

29. Review the learning objectives on page 1 of this lab. How would you rate your understanding or ability for each learning objective? Write one sentence that addresses each learning objective.

30. Sketch a concept map that includes the key ideas from this lab. Include at least five of the terms shown in bold-faced type.

31. Create an advertisement to educate your peers on the important information that you learned in this lab. Include at least three key terms in your advertisement. The advertisement should be about half a page in size (about 4 inches by 6 inches).

32. One way to think of physical geography is that it is the study of the relationships among variables that impact the Earth's surface. Select two variables discussed in this lab and describe how they are related.

33. How does what you learned in this lab relate to your everyday life? In two to three sentences, explain a concept that you learned in this lab and how it relates to your day-to-day actions.

34. How does what you learned in this lab relate to current events?
    1. Write the title, source, and date of a news item that relates to this lab.
    2. In two to three sentences, discuss how the news item relates to what you have learned in this lab.
    3. In one to two sentences, discuss whether or not the news item accurately represents the science that you learned. Tip: consider whether or not the news item includes the complexity of the topic.

35. Search O*NET OnLine to find an occupation that is relevant to the topics presented in today's lab. Your lab instructor may provide you with possible keywords to type in the Occupation Quick Search field on the O*NET website.
    1. What is the name of occupation that you found?
    2. Write two to three sentences that summarize the most important information that you learned about this occupation.
    3. What is one question that you would want to ask a person with this occupation?

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^[189] Text by the National Ocean Service is in the public domain

^[190] Text by NASA’s Earth Observatory is in the public domain

^[203] CoastAdapt (2017)