3.1: Introduction
The Atmosphere
The atmosphere , the gaseous layer that surrounds the earth, formed over four billion years ago and is held in place by the attractive forces of gravity. During the evolution of the solid earth, volcanic eruptions released gases into the developing atmosphere. Assuming the outgasing was similar to that of modern volcanoes, the gases released included: water vapor (H2O), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrochloric acid (HCl), methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3), nitrogen (N2) and sulfur gases. The atmosphere was reducing because there was no free oxygen. Most of the hydrogen and helium that outgassed would have eventually escaped into outer space due to the inability of the earth's gravity to hold on to their small masses. There may have also been significant contributions of volatiles from the massive meteoritic bombardments known to have occurred early in the earth's history.
Water vapor in the atmosphere condensed and rained down, eventually forming lakes and oceans. The oceans provided homes for the earliest organisms which were probably similar to cyanobacteria. Oxygen was released into the atmosphere by these early organisms, and carbon became sequestered in sedimentary rocks. This led to our current oxidizing atmosphere, which is mostly comprised of nitrogen (roughly 78 percent) and oxygen (roughly 21 percent) with 0.9% argon (Ar) and 0.04% carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). The atmosphere also contains highly variable concentrations of water vapor, which can range from only 0.01% in frigid winter air in the Arctic to 5% in warm, humid, tropical air. The atmosphere also contains several gases in trace amounts, such as helium, neon, methane and nitrous oxide. One very important trace gas is ozone (O 3 ), which absorbs harmful UV radiation from the sun.
The earth's atmosphere extends outward to about 1,000 kilometers where it transitions to interplanetary space. However, most of the mass of the atmosphere (greater than 99 percent) is located within the first 40 kilometers. On average, the total weight of the atmospheric mass exerts a pressure at sea level of around 1.0 × 10 5 pascals (Pa; or one atmosphere), which is equivalent to 1.0 kg per cm 2 . The density of the atmospheric mass is much greater close to the surface and decreases rapidly with increasing altitude. The vertical temperature profile of the atmosphere is variable and depends upon the types of radiation that affect each atmospheric layer. This, in turn, depends upon the chemical composition of that layer (mostly involving trace gases). Based on these factors, the atmosphere can be divided into four distinct layers: the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). The boundaries of the layers are inexact because they may vary over time and space. Beyond the atmosphere is outer space, an immeasurably vast region where the Earth exerts no detectable chemical or thermal influences.
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): The layers of the atmosphere. the toposphere is the closest to the Earth's surface (0-12 km). Next, is the stratosphere (12-50 km), mesophere (50-80 km), and thermosphere (80+ km). The outermost layer (the exosphere) is not shown. Ground-level ozone in the troposphere is a form of air pollution, but the ozone layer in the stratosphere helps filter UV rays. Image by GFDL ( CC-BY-SA ).
The troposphere (or lower atmosphere) contains 85-90% of the atmospheric mass and extends from the surface to an altitude of 8-20 km. It is thinner at high latitudes, and thicker at equatorial latitudes, but also varies seasonally, at any place being thicker during the summer than in the winter. Because convective air currents (winds) are common in the troposphere (the name troposphere means “region of mixing”) it is sometimes referred to as the “weather layer.” The troposphere contains the largest percentage of the mass of the atmosphere relative to the other layers. It also contains some 99 percent of the total water vapor of the atmosphere. The temperature of the troposphere is warm (roughly 17º C) near the surface of the earth. This is due to the absorption of infrared radiation from the surface by water vapor and other greenhouse gases (e.g. carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane) in the troposphere. The concentration of these gases decreases with altitude, and therefore, the heating effect is greatest near the surface. The temperature in the troposphere decreases at a rate of roughly 6.5º C per kilometer of altitude. The temperature at its upper boundary is very cold (roughly -60º C). Water vapor evaporated from the earth's surface condenses in the cooler upper regions of the troposphere and falls back to the surface as rain. Dust and pollutants injected into the troposphere become well mixed in the layer, but are eventually washed out by rainfall. The troposphere is therefore self cleaning. A narrow zone at the top of the troposphere is called the tropopause . It effectively separates the underlying troposphere and the overlying stratosphere. The temperature in the tropopause is relatively constant. Strong eastward winds, known as the jet stream , also occur here.
The stratosphere extends from the troposphere to as high as about 50 km, depending on the season and latitude. Within the stratosphere there are few convective air currents. The temperature profile of the stratosphere is quite different from that of the troposphere. The temperature remains relatively constant up to roughly 25 kilometers and then gradually increases up to the upper boundary of the layer. The amount of water vapor in the stratosphere is very low, so it is not an important factor in the temperature regulation of the layer. Instead, it is ozone (O3) that causes the observed temperature inversion. Most of the ozone in the atmosphere is contained in a layer of the stratosphere from roughly 20 to 30 kilometers. This ozone layer absorbs solar energy in the form of ultraviolet radiation (UV), and the energy is ultimately dissipated as heat in the stratosphere. This heat leads to the rise in temperature. Stratospheric ozone is also very important for living organisms on the surface of the earth as it protects them by absorbing most of the harmful UV radiation from the sun. The upper boundary of the stratosphere is known as the stratopause , which is marked by a sudden decrease in temperature.
The third layer in the earth's atmosphere is called the mesosphere . It extends from the stratopause (about 50 kilometers) to roughly 85 kilometers above the earth's surface. Because the mesosphere has negligible amounts of water vapor and ozone for generating heat, the temperature drops across this layer. It is warmed from the bottom by the stratosphere. The air is very thin in this region with a density about 1/1000 that of the surface. With increasing altitude this layer becomes increasingly dominated by lighter gases, and in the outer reaches, the remaining gases become stratified by molecular weight.
The fourth layer, the thermosphere , extends outward from about 85 kilometers to about 600 kilometers. Its upper boundary is ill defined. The temperature in the thermosphere increases with altitude, up to 1500º C or more. The high temperatures are the result of absorption of intense solar radiation by the last remaining oxygen molecules. The temperature can vary substantially depending upon the level of solar activity. The lower region of the thermosphere (up to about 550 kilometers) is also known as the ionosphere . Because of the high temperatures in this region, gas particles become ionized. The ionosphere is important because it reflects radio waves from the earth's surface, allowing long-distance radio communication. The visual atmospheric phenomenon known as the northern lights also occurs in this region. The outer region of the atmosphere is known as the exosphere . The exosphere represents the final transition between the atmosphere and interplanetary space. It extends about 1000 kilometers and contains mainly helium and hydrogen. Most satellites operate in this region.
Climate and Weather
A common misconception about global climate change is that a specific weather event occurring in a particular region (for example, a very cool week in June in central Indiana) is evidence of global climate change. However, a cold week in June is a weather-related event and not a climate-related one. These misconceptions often arise because of confusion over the terms climate and weather.
Climate refers to the long-term, predictable atmospheric conditions of a specific area. The climate of a biome is characterized by having consistent temperature and annual rainfall ranges. Climate does not address the amount of rain that fell on one particular day in a biome or the colder-than-average temperatures that occurred on one day. Climate scientists often average over decades to determine climate in a given location.
In contrast, weather refers to the conditions of the atmosphere during a short period of time. Weather forecasts are usually made for 48-hour cycles. Long-range weather forecasts are available but can be unreliable.
To better understand the difference between climate and weather, imagine that you are planning an outdoor event in northern Wisconsin. You would be thinking about climate when you plan the event in the summer rather than the winter because you have long-term knowledge that any given Saturday in the months of May to August would be a better choice for an outdoor event in Wisconsin than any given Saturday in January. However, you cannot determine the specific day that the event should be held on because it is difficult to accurately predict the weather on a specific day. Climate can be considered “average” weather.
What is Climate Change?
Climate change refers to any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time. In other words, climate change includes major changes in temperature, precipitation, or wind patterns, among other effects, that occur over several decades or longer.
Contributors and Attributions
Modified by Kyle Whittinghill, Melissa Ha, and Rachel Schleiger from the following sources:
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Connie Rye (East Mississippi Community College), Robert Wise (University of Wisconsin, Oshkosh), Vladimir Jurukovski (Suffolk County Community College), Jean DeSaix (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill), Jung Choi (Georgia Institute of Technology), Yael Avissar (Rhode Island College) among other contributing authors. Original content by OpenStax (CC BY 4.0; Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/185cbf87-c72...f21b5eabd@9.87 ).
- Kyle Whittinghill (University of Pittsburgh)
- Contributed by Melissa Ha and Rachel Schleiger Faculty (Biological Sciences) at Yuba College & Butte College
- Climate and the Effects of Global Climate Change from General Biology by OpenStax (licensed under CC-BY )
- Climate Change from Environmental Biology by Matthew R. Fisher (licensed under CC-BY )
- Carbon Cycle from Biology by John W. Kimball (licensed under CC-BY )
- The Physical World from Environmental Science: A Canadian Perspective by Bill Freedman
- Essentials of Environmental Science by Kamala Doršner is licensed under CC BY 4.0
- The Atmosphere from AP Environmental Science by University of California College Prep accessed through CNX.