10.6: Depositional Environments
- Page ID
- 5655
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A depositional environment is the accumulation of chemical, biological, and physical properties and processes associated with the deposition of sediments that lead to a distinctive suite of sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary environments are interpreted by geologists based on clues within such as rock types, sedimentary structures, trace fossils, and fossils. We can then compare these clues to modern environments to reconstruct ancient environments. We can break up the numerous depositional environments found on earth into common environments we find on land (continental environments), in the ocean (marine environments), and at the interface between the two (transitional environments). As each of the environments is briefly described, think about and fill in Table 3 with the following information:
- select the image that best depicts the depositional environment in Figure 10.4 and put the corresponding letter (from Figure 10.4) in the first column,
- the types of sediments and sedimentary rocks most likely to occur in that environment,
- the maturity of those sediments if clastic, and
- the types of sedimentary structures that may be present.
Continental Environments
There are many different environments on the continents, but again we are limited to those that are dominated by the deposition rather than the erosion of sediments. Erosion occurs in high altitude areas and although continents are overall topographically elevated compared to the oceans, there are several different areas on the continent where we get distinctive depositional properties. Continental depositional environments are dominated by clastic sedimentary rocks, largely because of their proximity to the source of the sediments.
Glacial depositional environments are controlled mostly by the weathering and erosion by glaciers and glacial meltwater. Glaciers most commonly occur in areas that are both high elevation and/or high latitudes. Glaciers are fairly slow-moving (centimeters a day) and normally travel short distances from their source, but they can cause immense mechanical weathering. Glaciers grind and bulldoze rock and create piles of poorly sorted sediment called moraines. Glaciers also produce a significant though the fluctuating amount of melted water, which flows through the moraines building a system of braided rivers. These rivers carry the small sediments further from the end of the glaciers into an area called the outwash plain, which consists of poorly sorted sediment.
We have spent a significant amount of time in chapter five discussing rivers and how they erode, transport, and deposit sediment. Sediments that are deposited through the action of rivers are referred to as fluvial depositional environments. The gradient and discharge of a river can greatly control the shape of the river, how it flows, and how it deposits sediment. Rivers alter sediment both chemically and physically as well as sort the sediment since there is a limit to the size of particles a river can carry. Within a meandering river we see several different types of sediments, from the pebbles and stones within the river channel to sandy point bars along the outer edge of the meander where the water slows. In addition, we see multiple types of sedimentary structures related to the flow of the river as well as those related to flood events.
We also have sediments deposited within lakes, which are called lacustrine depositional environments. Unlike rivers, lakes do not have rapidly flowing water and thus there is significantly less movement of sediment. The sediment that accumulates in lakes can come from several sources including rainwater carrying sediment into the lake from the shores, rivers that flow into the lake, and sediment that is transported by the wind. Once the sediment reaches the lake it remains undisturbed so we see thin layers of fine sediment, with varying amounts of trace fossil.
Lastly, there is the eolian depositional environment, which is dominated by currents of wind rather than water. Since air is less dense than water, only smaller particles can be transported. In addition, wind is not restrained within distinctive channels like water and, therefore, the features of eolian deposits are more widespread than those of fluvial deposits. Certain areas have predominant wind patterns, such that the wind is fairly consistent in direction and strength, which can generate significant sedimentary structures. When water is present within these environments it is often in the form of seasonal lakes that undergo significant evaporation and sometimes leaving behind chemical sedimentary rocks (evaporite deposits).
Transitional Environments
The interface between the continents and oceans are complicated areas that can be influenced by rivers, ocean currents, winds, waves, and tides. In addition, the sediments that are present in these areas are a mixture of materials derived from the continents (clastic and organic) and those from the ocean (chemical and biochemical). Finally, with the abundant currents (both air and water), sediments influenced by the elements, and abundant life in these areas, which results in abundant sedimentary structures and trace fossils. However, we can distinguish transitional areas that are dominated by different forces such as tides, ocean currents, and rivers.
Shorelines that are influenced by strong daily tidal currents are called tidal mudflat depositional environments. Tides are currents that are the result of the gravitational forces exerted by the moon and the rotation of the earth. Shorelines that have strong tidal currents as well as seafloors with low gradients can have large areas that are submerged during high tide and exposed to air during low tide. These areas often have smaller particles than a normal shoreline since the tidal currents can pull marine sediments into the area. In addition, the strong bidirectional currents, daily drying out, exposure to the elements, and abundant life create abundant indicators of these environments.
Shorelines that are dominated by ocean currents are called beach depositional environments. Shorelines have constant wind on and offshore that are the result of the difference in the way the land and water heat and cool through the day. These winds produce the waves that are iconic at the beach, but as these waves move onto shore they curve, mimicking the shape of the shore and result in a current that runs parallel to the shore itself. This current carries and deposits sand along the beach. In addition, the wind can also produce dunes, which promote a diverse and complicated ecosystem. Within beach depositional environments there are areas where rivers flow into the ocean, which are called Deltas. As a river that is carrying material empties into the ocean the water slows and deposits sediment. Most of the sediment is deposited at the mouth of the river with some spilling out into the surrounding areas building a distinctive fan of sediment. Since the sediment is coming from the river, the delta is largely a thick sequence of clastic sediment showing indications of the strong flow of the river.
Marine Environments
Marine depositional environments differ in multiple ways, but the controlling factors in the rocks that are produced is related to the proximity and supply of continental sediment, the water depth, and the community of organisms that live in the area. The further an environment is from the shore the less clastic sediment will be present and the area will have a higher concentration of the chemical and biological sedimentary rocks that are formed within the ocean. In addition, some organisms in the right environmental conditions can produce huge amounts of skeletal material.
Shallow marine depositional environments are areas that are close to shore but always submerged. These areas have a significant amount of mature clastic sediment along with marine algae (like seagrass) as well as skeletal material from animals like coral, echinoderms (sea urchins and sand dollars), and mollusks (clams and snails). These areas can have a significant difference in their energy level from very shallow areas influenced by waves to deeper areas only influenced by large storms. A better understanding of the relative depth can often be determined based on the sedimentary structures as well as the community of organisms and types of trace fossils, which can be very sensitive to depth.
In warm tropical shallow water area, we often find reef depositional environments. Reefs are formed through the growth of coral colonies building a large three-dimensional structure built from calcite skeletons. Corals can grow in many different marine environments, but they can only produce reefs when their symbiotic algae that live within their tentacles can photosynthesize effectively, resulting in more energy for the coral to grow faster. Reefs also create a barrier between shallow-water environments and ocean currents producing shallow, low-energy environment called lagoons. Lagoons can have thin layers of fine sediment that we would expect in quiet water along with chemical sedimentary deposits that are the result of evaporation.
Most of the ocean consists of deep-marine depositional environments. These areas are beyond the reach of most clastic sediment other than the dust carried by the wind. Therefore, the sediment is being produced chemically and biologically within the ocean. The largest source of sediment in these deep settings is skeletal material from some of the smallest marine organisms. Multiple types of single-celled organisms can produce shells composed of either silica or calcite. These shells are mostly produced in the surface waters that are bathed in sunlight permitting photosynthesis. When the organism dies, these shells then rain down into deeper water; this slow accumulation of sediment produces fine layers of biochemical sedimentary rocks. In some cases, these shells are dissolved or altered before they reach the bottom (which can be miles away) and are precipitated as chemical sedimentary rocks. Obviously, there is not a clear boundary between shallow and deep-water environments given the gradient of the ocean floor. The deep marine depositional environment is normally thousands of feet deep and beyond the influence of even large storms.
Depositional Environments
Based on the descriptions of the different sedimentary environments along with your understanding of weathering, sedimentary rocks, and sedimentary structures please fill out the following table, which can then be used as a guide for answering the following questions on depositional environments.
Table 10.3 | |||||
Example from Figure 4 |
Depositional Environment |
Description |
Clastic Rock Maturity, Distance From Source, and Type |
Other Sedimentary Rocks |
Sedimentary Structures |
Continental | |||||
Fluvial |
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Lacustrine |
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Glacial |
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Eolian |
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Transitional | |||||
Beach |
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Mudflats |
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Marine | |||||
Shallow Marine |
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Reefs |
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Deep Marine |
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