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- https://geo.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Meteorology_and_Climate_Science/Book%3A_Fundamentals_of_Atmospheric_Science_(Brune)/11%3A_Atmospheric_Boundary_Layer/11.08%3A_Heres_How_Reynolds_Did_AveragingWhat we want to do is to write down the equations of motion that you learned in Lesson 10; substitute mean and turbulent parts for the variables such as u, v, and w; average over all the terms; and th...What we want to do is to write down the equations of motion that you learned in Lesson 10; substitute mean and turbulent parts for the variables such as u, v, and w; average over all the terms; and then see if we can sort out the terms to create an equation for the mean wind and an equation for the turbulent wind. Second, the average of the product of a constant times a variable is just a product of the average of the constant times the average of the variable.
- https://geo.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Meteorology_and_Climate_Science/Book%3A_Fundamentals_of_Atmospheric_Science_(Brune)/05%3A_Cloud_Physics/5.04%3A_How_can_supersaturation_be_achievedThree basic mechanisms for cooling the air are RUM: Radiation, Uplift, and Mixing.
- https://geo.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Meteorology_and_Climate_Science/Book%3A_Fundamentals_of_Atmospheric_Science_(Brune)/10%3A_Dynamics_-_Forces/10.04%3A_What_are_the_important_real_forcesThere are three real forces important for atmospheric motion: (1) Gravitational Force, (2) Pressure Gradient Force (PGF), and (3) Friction.
- https://geo.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Meteorology_and_Climate_Science/Book%3A_Fundamentals_of_Atmospheric_Science_(Brune)/05%3A_Cloud_Physics/5.05%3A_Curvature_Effect_-_Kelvin_EffectConsider the forces that are holding a water drop together for a flat and a curved surface. The forces on the hydrogen bonding in the liquid give a net inward attractive force to the molecules on the ...Consider the forces that are holding a water drop together for a flat and a curved surface. The forces on the hydrogen bonding in the liquid give a net inward attractive force to the molecules on the boundary between the liquid and the vapor. The net inward force, divided by the distance along the surface, is called surface tension.
- https://geo.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Meteorology_and_Climate_Science/Book%3A_Fundamentals_of_Atmospheric_Science_(Brune)/08%3A_Math_and_Conceptual_Preparation_for_Understanding_Atmospheric_Motion/8.06%3A_Gradients_-_How_to_Find_ThemFor instance, in the temperature map at the beginning of this section, the x-gradient is hard to determine by the centered difference method in the Oklahoma panhandle and the y-gradient is hard to det...For instance, in the temperature map at the beginning of this section, the x-gradient is hard to determine by the centered difference method in the Oklahoma panhandle and the y-gradient is hard to determine in central Pennsylvania because in both cases, the temperature hardly changes.
- https://geo.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Meteorology_and_Climate_Science/Book%3A_Fundamentals_of_Atmospheric_Science_(Brune)/02%3A_Thermodynamics/2.01%3A_Gas_LawsUnderstanding atmospheric thermodynamics begins with the gas laws that you learned in chemistry. Because these laws are so important, we will review them again here and put them in forms that are part...Understanding atmospheric thermodynamics begins with the gas laws that you learned in chemistry. Because these laws are so important, we will review them again here and put them in forms that are particularly useful for atmospheric science. These laws will be used again and again in many other areas of atmospheric science, including cloud physics, atmospheric structure, dynamics, radiation, boundary layer, and even forecasting.
- https://geo.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Meteorology_and_Climate_Science/Book%3A_Fundamentals_of_Atmospheric_Science_(Brune)/07%3A_Applications_of_Atmospheric_Radiation_Principles/7.03%3A_Atmospheric_Radiation_and_Earths_ClimateThe solar irradiance is essentially composed of parallel radiation beams that strike half the globe. At the same time, outgoing infrared radiation is emitted to space in all directions from both the s...The solar irradiance is essentially composed of parallel radiation beams that strike half the globe. At the same time, outgoing infrared radiation is emitted to space in all directions from both the sunlit and dark sides of the globe. At the top of the atmosphere, the difference of the incoming solar radiation energy minus the amount of solar radiation energy that is scattered back to space must balance the emitted infrared radiation energy for radiative equilibrium to hold.
- https://geo.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Geography_(Physical)/BioGeoChemistry_(LibreTexts)/03%3A_The_Atmosphere/3.05%3A_Atmospheric_Composition/3.5.01%3A_Atmospheric_CompositionKey features of the gases include their compressibility, their transparency in the visible, their momentum, and their heat capacity. Water vapor has the additional important feature of existing in the...Key features of the gases include their compressibility, their transparency in the visible, their momentum, and their heat capacity. Water vapor has the additional important feature of existing in the vapor, liquid, and solid phases in the atmosphere and on Earth’s surface. The most important properties of small particles include their ability to dissolve in water in order to be Cloud Condensation Nuclei or to maintain a lattice structure similar to ice to be Ice Nuclei.
- https://geo.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Geography_(Physical)/BioGeoChemistry_(LibreTexts)/03%3A_The_Atmosphere/3.05%3A_Atmospheric_Composition/3.5.05%3A_The_Story_of_the_Atmosphere's_PAC-MANThe atmosphere's oxidation capacity is its ability to clean itself of all of the gases that are emitted into it. What does stratospheric ozone have to do with the atmosphere’s oxidation capacity, whic...The atmosphere's oxidation capacity is its ability to clean itself of all of the gases that are emitted into it. What does stratospheric ozone have to do with the atmosphere’s oxidation capacity, which mostly occurs in the troposphere and mostly by the atmosphere's PAC-MAN, hydroxyl (OH)? It turns out that natural dynamic processes actually pull air down from the stratosphere and mix it into the troposphere, eventually mixing some of this ozone to Earth’s surface.
- https://geo.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Geography_(Physical)/BioGeoChemistry_(LibreTexts)/03%3A_The_Atmosphere/3.05%3A_Atmospheric_CompositionThe atmosphere consists mostly of dry air - mostly molecular nitrogen (78%), molecular oxygen (21%), and Argon (0.9%) - and highly variable amounts of water vapor (from parts per million in air to a ...The atmosphere consists mostly of dry air - mostly molecular nitrogen (78%), molecular oxygen (21%), and Argon (0.9%) - and highly variable amounts of water vapor (from parts per million in air to a few percent). Now we will consider gases and particles in the atmosphere at trace levels. The most abundant of the trace gases in the global atmosphere is carbon dioxide (~400 parts per million), but there are thousands of trace gases with fractions much less than a few parts per million.
- https://geo.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Meteorology_and_Climate_Science/Book%3A_Fundamentals_of_Atmospheric_Science_(Brune)/04%3A_Atmospheric_Composition/4.03%3A_Other_Trace_GasesHundreds of different trace gases have been measured in the atmosphere and perhaps thousands more have yet to be measured. Many of these are volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Volatile means that the ...Hundreds of different trace gases have been measured in the atmosphere and perhaps thousands more have yet to be measured. Many of these are volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Volatile means that the compound may exist in the liquid or solid phase but that it easily evaporates. Organic means that the compound contains carbon but is not carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, or carbides and carbonates found in rocks.
