7.5: Review and Additional Resources

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Michael E. Ritter
University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point via The Physical Environment

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Summary

Aerial view of deep blue Crater Lake surrounded by steep volcanic caldera walls and evergreen trees under a clear sky. — Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) : Aerial View of Crater Lake. (CC BY-NC 4.0 ; Courtesy Mrinmoy Ghosh).

Review and assess your learning. Start with the "Important Terms and Concepts" to ensure you know the terminology related to the topic of the chapter and concepts discussed. Move on to the "Review Questions" to answer critical thinking questions about concepts and processes discussed in the chapter. Finally, test your overall understanding by taking the "Self-assessment quiz".

Important Terms and Concepts

tectonic plates

aka lithospheric or crustal plates; make up the surface of the lithosphere
plate tectonics

the process of plate formation, movement, and destruction
continental drift

the movements of continents over the Earth's surface
sea-floor spreading

the creation new oceanic plate material and movement away from the midocean ridge
Pangea

the one "super-continent"; the past configuration of the continents
exotic terrain

new land that has been formed somewhere else and moved to its present location
midocean ridge

the longest continuous mountain system on Earth
mantle convection currents

the mechanism that drives continental drift; created by heat trapped beneath the Earth's surface
magnetic reversal

a series of "flips" when the polarity of the rocks reversed
subduction zone

where more dense plates dive beneath lighter, less dense crustal plates
spreading boundary

occurs where plates are moving away (diverging) from one another
convergent boundary

located where subduction is active and the lithosphere is being "consumed". This occurs where two plates collide with one another
transform boundary

where plates are grinding past one another, like the San Andreas fault
plate boundary zone

broad belts in which boundaries are not well defined and the effects of plate interaction are unclear
Ring of fire

extends from the west coast of the United States toward the Aleutian Islands and over to Japan; a good example of volcano activity associated with the margins of plates
strain

change in shape as a result of imposing a stress
elastic deformation

Like a rubber band, if the stress is released before reaching the yield point, the rock material will return to its original shape
brittle failure

under low temperature and pressure conditions, once the rock reaches its yield point it will break; or if stress is imposed suddenly
plastic deformation

once the rock changes shape and if stress is released, it will not return to its original form
folding

occurs when rock is compressed, as it is along colliding plate boundaries
anticline

Upturned folds
syncline

down turned folds
symmetrical fold

near-vertical axial planes and gently dipping limbs of about the same angle are a product of gentle compression
overturned fold

If the compression is more pronounced from one direction
recumbent fold

When extreme directed pressure lay the fold over with its axial plane nearly horizontal with the surface
fault

a fracture along which movement occurs
fault Plane

The plane that extends into the earth and along which slippage occurs
fault dip

the angle from horizontal that the fault plane makes
strike

The map direction that the fault takes
fault scarp

The steep face of an exposed block
fault line

the trace of the fault along the surface
strike slip fault

aka transform fault; those that primarily exhibit horizontal movement
dip slip fault

those in which vertical displacement primarily occurs
transform fault

aka strike slip fault; those that primarily exhibit horizontal movement
normal fault

one in which the hanging wall falls down relative to the foot wall due to tensional stress
reverse fault

the hanging wall moves up relative to the foot wall due to compression
graben

forms when a block of rock falls between two faults
horst

forms between two normal faults when a block of rock in the middle remains stationary and the blocks on either side subside
thrust fault

a reverse fault at 45^o angle
volcano

an opening in the surface of the Earth from which magma and associated gases and ash erupt; also, the form or structure, sometimes conical, that is produced by the ejected material.
central vent

The main conduit through which magma moves toward the surface
crater

sits at the top of a volcano and is the location where much of the lava, gas, rock fragments and ash are ejected from
caldera

massive craters created when pressure builds inside the volcano until the top is literally blown off, magma drains back into the central vent and the top of the cone collapses in
magma chamber

a huge, subterranean caldron of molten rock that is less dense than the surrounding rock and rises to the surface
lava

molten rock above the surface
lateral vent

found on the sides of some volcanoes where lava is extruded
pyroclastic flow

fast-moving gas and fragments of rock having temperatures of 500 ^oC rushing down the flanks of a volcano at speeds reaching 100 km/hr, carbonizing all in their path.
hot spot

places where a chamber of magma has accumulated at depth beneath the surface
midocean Ridge

oceanic plates are diverging and magma spreads across the ocean floor, ultimately being exposed at the surface
effusive eruption

those that create vast lava flows of low viscosity, fluid lava. Magma associated with effusive-type eruptions is relatively low in silica and thus "easily" flows up the vent and spreads across the surface
shield volcano

a product of effusive eruptions; as the fluid lava flows out onto the surface, it spreads out and cools into a broad, low-angled slope.
Pahoehoe lava

has a glistening, ropy like appearance as it moves and cools
AA lava

more pasty than pahoehoe and forms a sharp, clinkery, rough surface
explosive eruption

common to volcanoes with very viscous lava and high amounts of gas under pressure. Magma is high in silica, thus more viscous
cinder cone

primarily composed of layers of pyroclastic material built from rock fragments once lodged in the central vent of the volcano
composite (Stratovolcano)

produce explosive eruptions; form from alternating eruptions dominated by pyroclastics or lava; display layers of alternating flows
lahar

Mudflows or debris flows resulting from when hot pyroclastic material melts snowpacks, or fresh pyroclastic deposits are mobilized by heavy rains
Nuees Ardentees

noxious gases and fine particulate matter; aka "glowing clouds or avalanches"

Review Questions \(\PageIndex{1}\)

What is plate tectonics.

Answer: Plate tectonics is the theory that the surface is broken into several tectonic plates that are moving and interacting with one another to produce relief features of the Earth.

Courtesy USGS

What evidence was used to confirm the notion of continental drift?

Answer: Similar configuration of continents, fossils, and geologic deposits widely separated from one another.

Where does sea flooring spreading occur? How have scienticts confirmed that sea floor spreading is taking place?

Answer: Sea floor spreading occurs along the midocean ridge where new rock material is extruded onto the ocean floor. Magnetic stripes indicate similar polarity in rocks on either side of the ridge. The age of rocks increases away from the midocean ridge.

What drives the movement of tectonic plates?

Answer: It is thought that convection currents in the mantle, the push of crustal rock as it is extruded along the midocean ridge, and the pull of slabs of crust at subduction zones are responsible for the movement of plates.

What is occurring along the midocean ridge?

Answer: The midocean ridge is a primary site for sea floor spreading. As a result, earthquakes and volcanic activity is common.

Sea floor spreading (Courtesy USGS)

What is a subduction zone, where do you find them, and what kinds of geological activity occurs there?

Answer: A subduction zone is where crustal rocks are forced beneath the surface. Subduction is common where heavier, more dense ocean plates collide with lighter, less dense continental plates.

Compare and contrast the four main types of plate boundaries. Give examples of where they occur.

Answer: A spreading boundary occurs where plates are moving away (diverging) from one another, like along the midocean ridge . Here, new crust is formed by accretion. A convergent boundary is found where subduction is active and the lithosphere is being "consumed". A transform boundary forms where plates are grinding past one another, like the San Andreas fault. A plate boundary zone is a broad belts in which boundaries are not well defined and the effects of plate interaction are unclear.

Tectonic Settings (Courtesy USGS)

What is the "Ring of Fire"?

Answer: The "Ring of Fire" is "ring" of volcanoes encircling most of the Pacific ocean.

Ring of Fire (Courtesy USGS)

Describe elastic deformation, brittle failure, and plastic deformation.

Answer: Elastic deformation: when stress is imposed on rock it deformed, when released it returns to its original shape. Brittle failure: breakage caused when stress is imposed beyond the rupture point of brittle materials. Plastic deformation: when stress is imposed on rock it deformed, when released it remains in its deformed shaped.

How does folding occur and what is the result?

Answer: Folding occurs by compression of rock material. An up-turn fold is called an anticline while a down-turn fold is a syncline.

Compare and contrast the different kinds of faults.

Answer: A dip slip fault exhibits vertical displacement. A normal fault is one in which the hanging wall falls down relative to the foot wall due to tensional stress. A reverse fault is one in which the hanging wall moves up relative to the foot wall due to compression. A thrust fault occurs when the hanging wall is pushed up and then over the foot wall at a low angle.

Compare and contrast shield, composite, and cinder cone volcanoes.

Answer: Shield volcanoes have broad, low-angled slopes and built layer on layer of fluid lava. Composite volcanoes are steep-sided cones built from alternating flows of lava and pyroclastics. Cinder cones are smaller cones built primarily from explosive eruptions of pyroclastics.

Shield Volcano (Photograph: D. Little; Courtesy USGS)

Composite Volcano (Photograph: R. McGimsey; Courtesy USGS)

Cinder Cone (Photograph: J.P. Lockwood; Courtesy USGS

Where do volcanoes occur?

Answer: In subduction zones, along the midocean ridge, and over hot spots.

What is the basic difference between eruptions from shield and composite volcanoes?

Answer: Eruptions from shield volcanoes tend to be dominated by effusive eruptions of fluid lava. Composite volcanoes produces explosive eruptions from stickier magma.

What is a lahar?

Answer: Mudflows called lahars are caused by the rapid melting and runoff of snow mixing with ash and soil.

What is a pyroclastic flow?

Answer: Hot ash, pumice, rock fragments and noxious gas that moves rapidly down the side of a volcano.

What are the principal gases emitted by a volcano?

Answer: The most common gas released by magma is steam (H₂O), followed by CO₂ (carbon dioxide), SO₂ (sulfur dioxide), (HCl) hydrogen chloride and other compounds.

How do calderas form?

Answer: By the volcano blowing the summit off or magma draining from the central vent removing support for the summit causing it to collapse in.

Mt. Saint Helens, Courtesy USGS

Explain how the Hawaiian Islands formed.

Answer: The Hawaiian islands were formed by volcanic activity over a hot spot. The youngest island in the chain lies toward the southeast as the Pacific Plate moves toward the northwest.

Hawaiian islands forming over hot spot (Source: USGS)

Age of Hawaiian Islands (Source: USGS)

How was the Columbia Plateau formed?

Answer: A flood basalt of 170,000 cubic kilometers known as the Columbia River basalts covered a large portion of southeastern Washington, eastern Oregon and southern Idaho creating the plateau.

What is a volcanic neck?

Answer: A volcanic neck is the "mold" of the central vent. Magma stuck in the central vent cools. Removal of the overlying rock exposes the plug-like shape within. Shiprock, NM (below) is a notable example of a volcanic neck.

Self-Assessment Quiz \(\PageIndex{1}\)

The original "super continent" was called
1. Pangea
2. Gondwanaland
3. Nortreland
4. none of the above
Wegener proposed that continental crust "plowed" through _____ as it moved from one place to the next.
1. oceanic crust
2. the mantle
3. the Moho
4. none of the above
In the late 1920's until the present, the movement of plates is thought to be due to
1. convection currents in the crust
2. convection currents in the mantle
3. convection currents in the core
4. earthquakes along subduction zones
Along the Mid-ocean ridge
1. earthquakes occur
2. sea floor spreading occurs
3. volcanism occurs
4. all the above occurs
Subduction zones are mostly likely found where
1. ocean crust collides with ocean crust
2. ocean crust collides with continental crust
3. continental crust collides with continental crust
4. where continental crust divergence takes place
Which of the following boundaries characterize the San Andreas Fault?
1. Spreading
2. Convergent
3. Transform
4. None of the above
Volcanism in Iceland is due to which of the following plate boundaries?
1. Spreading
2. Convergent
3. Transform
4. None of the above
Volcanism on the Hawaiian Islands is due to which of the following plate boundaries?
1. Spreading
2. Convergent
3. Transform
4. None of the above
The "Ring of Fire" is due to
1. ocean crust colliding with ocean crust
2. ocean crust colliding with continental crust
3. continental crust colliding with continental crust
4. where continental crust divergence takes place
The longest continuous chain of mountains formed by tectonic processes is found
1. in North America
2. in South America
3. in Asia
4. on the ocean floor
Volcanoes are found
1. along the midocean ridge
2. near subduction zones
3. hot spots (mantle plumes)
4. all of the above
A volcano built by alternating flows of lava and accumulation of pyroclastics is called
1. a shield volcano
2. a cinder cones
3. a composite volcano (stratovolcano)
4. any of the above
A caldera
1. is a lateral vent on the side of a volcano
2. a huge crater at the top of the volcano
3. a tube where lava pours into the ocean
4. none of the above
The oldest island in the Hawaiian chain is located towards the ______ end of the chain.
1. northwest
2. northeast
3. southwest
4. southeast
The volcanoes that comprise the Hawaiian Islands are
1. shield volcanoes
2. composite volcanoes
3. cinder cones
4. none of the above
Shield volcanoes
1. are associated with effusive eruptions
2. have very steep sides
3. mostly emit pyroclastic material from their central vent
4. are associated with all the above
______ are mudflows due to rapid melting of snow packs along the sides of snow covered mountains.
1. Pyroclastic avalanche
2. Pahoehoe
3. AA
4. Lahars
Devil's Tower is a
1. dike
2. lava plateau
3. a landing site for alien spacecraft
4. volcanic neck
A lava that has a glistening, ropy-like appearance associated with effusive eruptions is known as
1. AA
2. Pahoehoe
3. Nuees Ardentees
4. Pu' u' O'o
The Columbia River Plateau is was built from
1. limestone
2. granite
3. basalt
4. none of the above

Answer

Additional Resources

Citations

OpenAI. (2026). ChatGPT (GPT-4o version) [Large language model]. https://chatgpt.com
Google. (2026). Gemini (Gemini 1.5 Pro version) [Large language model]. google.com
merican Museum of Natural History. (n.d.). Harry Hess: One of the discoverers of seafloor spreading. Earth: Inside and Out.
Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. (2024, February 15). Continental Drift. Encyclopedia Britannica.
Hawaiian Volcano Observatory. (2022, July 14). Volcano watch — What is a volcano? U.S. Geological Survey.
Kious, W. J., & Tilling, R. I. (1996). This dynamic Earth: The story of plate tectonics. U.S. Geological Survey.
National Geographic Society. (2022, May 20). Continental drift. National Geographic Education.
National Geographic Society. (n.d.). Seafloor spreading.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (n.d.). Seafloor spreading. NeMO Explorer.
National Park Service. (2020, December 28). Plate tectonics (Older version). U.S. Department of the Interior.
NOAA Ocean Exploration. (2024, August 21). What are the different types of plate tectonic boundaries? National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
Ritter, M. E. (2020). The physical environment: An introduction to physical geography. (L. Pitts, Ed.).
Simkin, T., Tilling, R. I., Vogt, P. R., Kirby, S. H., Kimberly, P., & Stewart, D. B. (2006). This dynamic planet: World map of volcanoes, earthquakes, impact craters, and plate tectonics (Geologic Investigations Map I-2800, 3rd ed.). U.S. Geological Survey.
Simkin, T., Unger, J. D., Tilling, R. I., Vogt, P. R., & Spall, H. (Comps.). (1994). This dynamic planet: World map of volcanoes, earthquakes, impact craters, and plate tectonics [Map]. U.S. Geological Survey; Smithsonian Institution; U.S. Naval Research Laboratory.
Stoffer, P. (2004). Volcanic rocks and associated landforms (Open-File Report 2004-1007). U.S. Geological Survey.
Tilling, R. I. (1997). Volcanoes. U.S. Geological Survey.
U.S. Geological Survey. (n.d.). The science of earthquakes.
U.S. Geological Survey. (1999, May 5). Developing the theory. This DynamicNational The Story of Plate Tectonics.
U.S. Geological Survey. (2025, July 11). What is a tectonic plate?

Multimedia

The Physical Environment: Watch KSPS Public TV’s Cascades Volcanoes: When Sleeping Giants Wake to explore how volcanoes form, why eruptions occur, and how volcanic systems shape landscapes in the Cascade Range. This video helps students connect plate tectonics, magma movement, volcanic hazards, and environmental change to real-world physical geography.
Physical Geography Today: Explore the Smithsonian and USGS Weekly Volcanic Activity reports to examine current volcanic events around the world. This resource helps students connect plate tectonics, volcanic hazards, and Earth system processes to real-time scientific monitoring and global environmental change.

Readings

Physical Geography Today: Explore BBC News’ In depth: Asia quake disaster to examine the physical processes and human impacts associated with a major earthquake and tsunami event. This resource helps students connect plate tectonics, seismic hazards, coastal impacts, and disaster response to real-world environmental change.
Physical Geography Today: Explore BBC News’ In pictures: The tsunami's aftermath to examine visual evidence of how a major tsunami affected coastlines and communities. This resource helps connect coastal hazards, seismic events, and environmental change to real-world physical geography.
Physical Geography Today: Explore NASA Earth Observatory’s Tracking a Volcano to learn how scientists use satellites to monitor volcanic eruptions. This resource explains how temperature measurements of lava flows help volcanologists estimate eruption activity and better understand volcanic hazards.
The Physical Environment: Explore the U.S. Geological Survey’s This dynamic Earth: The story of plate tectonics to learn how moving tectonic plates shape Earth’s surface. This resource connects plate motion to earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain building, and other major Earth processes.
The Physical Environment: Read USGS’s Surviving a tsunami—Lessons from Chile, Hawaii, and Japan (USGS Circular 1187) to understand how tsunamis form, why they are dangerous, and what communities can do to prepare. As you explore, think about how lessons from past disasters can help reduce future risk.

Websites

The Physical Environment: Explore NOVA’s Anatomy of Nyriragongo to examine the main features of Mount Nyiragongo and the volcanic hazards it poses to nearby communities. This resource helps students connect volcanic structure, lava behavior, and human vulnerability by showing why this volcano is especially dangerous for the many people living nearby.
Physical Geography Today: Explore the USGS Cascades Volcano Observatory to access volcano information, maps, photos, data, and other scientific resources. This site helps students connect volcanic processes, hazard monitoring, and physical geography through real-world examples and current scientific observations.
Physical Geography Today: Explore Deadly Volcanoes to learn about major volcanic disasters from the past 400 years. As you read, think about what made these eruptions so dangerous and how volcanic hazards can affect both the environment and human populations.

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