5.13: Review and Additional Resources

Summary

Review and assess your learning. Start with the "Important Terms and Concepts" to ensure you know the terminology related to the topic of the chapter and concepts discussed. Move on to the "Review Questions" to answer critical thinking questions about concepts and processes discussed in the chapter. Finally, test your overall understanding by taking the "Self-assessment quiz".

Important Terms and Concepts

• Climatology

  the study of the long-term state of the atmosphere, or climate

• climate

  the long-term state of the atmosphere

• climate classification

  ways to organize the wealth of information about Earth's climate to bring order and understanding to it

• empirical classification

  classification systems based on observable facts such as temperature and precipitation.

• genetic classification

  classification systems based on the cause of the climate like solar radiation, air masses, pressure systems, etc.

• applied classification

  classification systems created for a particular climate-associated problem

• Koeppen Climate Classification

  an empirical system largely based on annual and monthly means of temperature and precipitation

• Tropical rain forest Climate

  supports one of the most lush and diverse environments on Earth. Located near the equator, it is characterized by year-round warm temperatures and copious rainfall

• Monsoon Climate

  abundant rainfall concentrated in the high-sun season, located near the equator with warm temperatures throughout the year

• Wet/Dry Tropical Climate

  it supports a ground cover of drought resistant grasses with scattered trees, but not enough rainfall to make agriculture a viable, life sustaining activity.

• Tropical Steppe Climate

  transitional climate between the tropical wet and tropical dry climates

• Tropical Desert Climate

  an environment of extremes: it is the driest and hottest place on earth. Rainfall is sporadic and in some years no measurable precipitation falls at all.

• Dry Summer Subtropical Climate

  also known as the "Mediterranean" climate, wet winter/dry summer seasonality

• Humid Subtropical Climate

  found on the east coast of continents, instable air with moderate amounts of precipitation in most months of the year and subject to cold temperatures during the winter

• Humid Continental Climate

  noted for its variable weather patterns related to cyclonic storms and its large temperature range due to its interior location in mid-latitude continents

• Midlatitude Steppe Climate

  shares many of the same characteristics that the tropical steppe has. Both are semi-arid climates that are affected by their interior continental or leeward orographic position. However, the midlatitude steppe experiences larger temperature ranges and receives more total rainfall than the tropical steppe climate.

• Midlatitude Desert Climate

  shares many of the same climatic characteristics as the tropical deserts, and for many of the same reasons. While the tropical desert climates are considered "hot" deserts following Köppen's classification (BWh), midlatitude deserts are "cold" deserts

• Humid (Marine) West Coast Climate

  found on the west coast of midlatitude continents and is very humid through most of the year. Its geographic location places it in the path of westerly winds from the ocean that bring cloudy skies, much precipitation, and mild temperatures.

• Subarctic Climate

  Bitterly cold winters and mild summers result in the largest annual temperature range of any climate on Earth.

• Tundra Climate

  transitional climate between the Subarctic and Ice cap climates. It is a region of rolling to nearly level terrain almost entirely devoid of trees. Polar climates like the tundra are characterized by very cold temperatures and generally dry conditions. Temperatures never rise above 10^o C (50^oF) during the summer.

• Ice Cap Climate

  experiences the coldest temperatures on earth. Located near the poles, this climate experiences bitterly cold temperatures throughout the year, especially during the long polar night. The resulting humidity levels are so low that precipitation amounts may be similar to most deserts.

Review Questions \(\PageIndex{1}\)

Compare and Contrast the seasonality of precipitation that falls in the Dry Summer Subtropical climate and the Humid Subtropical climate.

Answer

The dry summer subtropical climate has a dry summer due to the influence of the subtropical high and a wet winter due to midlatitude cyclones embedded in the westerlies. The humid subtropical climate has ample precipitation in all months, decreasing toward the interior of the continent.

Describe how the seasonality of precipitation (generally) varies as one travels from the Equator to the Mediterranean Sea in Africa.

Answer

Along the equator, climates receive much rain fall in each month of the year. The precipitation is relatively evenly distributed between high and low sun seasons. As one moves poleward, annual precipitation decreases and becomes seasonal, falling mostly in the high sun season (ITCZ dominates). Precipitation decreases to a minimum in the Sahara desert where the subtropical high dominates. Precipitation becomes seasonal falling mostly in the low sun season as one proceeds to the Mediterranean Sea (Dry Summer Subtropical climate).

How does the geographical distribution of the Marine West Coast climate in North America differ from that in Europe. What is largely responsible for the difference?

Answer

The marine west coast in North America is confined to a narrow belt along the west coast of the continent by north-south oriented mountains. The orientation presents a barrier to westerly maritime winds, forcing them to rise inducing precipitation. Mountains in Europe tend to be east-west oriented, presenting less of a barrier to westerly wind, thus extending the marine west coast climate further into the continent.

In general, why does the arctic tundra climate have a smaller temperature range than the subarctic climate.

Answer

The arctic tundra is generally bordered by an ocean which moderates the annual temperature variation. The interior location of the subarctic climate results in a larger temperature range even at a lower latitude.

Which climate has the smallest annual temperature range and why?

Answer

The tropical rain forest climate has the smallest annual temperature range. Located near the equator means the sun is always high in the sky during the year. Little variation in sun angle results in small annual temperature range.

Which climates are significantly influenced by mountain systems?

Answer

The moist climate of the marine west coast climate in North America is due to orographic uplift of marine air masses along windward slopes. The dry conditions of many deserts and steppes result from their leeward location in the rain shadow of the mountains.

What is continentality and what affect does it have on the climate of a place?

Answer

Continentality is the effect of continental location on weather and climate. Places located in the interior of a continent tend to have lower humidity, less precipitation, and a larger annual temperature range than coastal locations (exceptions do occur!)

Which climates are significantly influenced by cold ocean currents?

Answer

The dry summer subtropical climate, especially in North America is influenced by a cold ocean current. The coastal portion of the humid subtropical climate is affected by a warm ocean current. The marine west coast climate of Europe is mild due to the influence of the warm North Atlantic Current.

Why do physical geographers sometimes refer to the Ice cap climate as a "polar desert"?

Answer

The air is extremely cold and thus has a very low saturation point resulting in meager precipitation.

When does the Wet/Dry tropical (Savanna) climate experience its highest temperatures and highest rainfall?

Answer

Highest temperatures are generally prior to the wet season. Most rain falls during the high sun season.

How do the position of the ITCZ and Subtropical Highs affect the climate of the tropics?

Answer

The uplift of air by convection and convergence in the ITCZ promotes precipitation while the subsidence of air associated with the subtropical high suppresses precipitation.

Self-Assessment Quiz \(\PageIndex{1}\)

1. The largest temperature range is found in the
   1. Subarctic climate
   2. Ice cap climate
   3. Tundra Climate
   4. none of the above
2. Which of the following climates is dominated by mTu through much of the year?
   1. Humid subtropical
   2. Humid continental
   3. Dry summer subtropical
   4. Tropical steppe
3. If location's annual potential evapotranspiration is greater than half the annual precipitation you would classify the climate as a
   1. dry summer subtropical
   2. tropical desert
   3. tropical steppe
   4. tropical monsoon
4. Desert climates
   1. are typically found in rain shadow locations
   2. dominated by high pressure
   3. have large daily temperature ranges
   4. all the above
5. The highest monthly temperature occurs ______ in the tropical monsoon climate.
   1. just before the wet season
   2. just after the wet season
   3. during the low sun season
   4. none of the above
6. The polar front dominates the _____ climate during most of the year.
   1. dry summer subtropical
   2. humid continental
   3. humid subtropical
   4. tundra
7. Which of the following climates lacks seasonal precipitation?
   1. Tropical rain forest
   2. Monsoon
   3. Tropical Wet/Dry
   4. Tropical Steppe
8. The precipitation that falls in the marine west coast climate of North America is primarily caused by
   1. convection
   2. cyclones and orographic uplift
   3. convection and orographic uplift
   4. convection and cyclones
9. Which climate borders the Mediterranean Sea?
   1. Humid Continental
   2. Humid Subtropical
   3. Tropical Monsoon
   4. Dry Summer Subtropical
10. The precipitation along the equatorward margins of the humid subtropical climate
    1. tends to be evenly distributed throughout the year
    2. tends to fall mostly in the summer
    3. tends to fall mostly in the winter
    4. none of the above

Answer

1. A
2. A
3. B
4. D
5. A
6. B
7. A
8. B
9. D
10. A

Additional Resources

Citations

• OpenAI. (2026). ChatGPT (GPT-4o version) [Large language model]. https://chatgpt.com
• Google. (2026). Gemini (Gemini 1.5 Pro version) [Large language model]. google.com
• ASA Science. (n.d.). Global warming. NASA Science Earth Exploration.
• NASA Science. (n.d.). The ocean and climate change. NASA Science Earth Exploration.
• National Centre for Atmospheric Science. (2023). What causes weather? Learn About the Atmosphere.
• National Geographic Society. (2023). Weather or Climate: What's the Difference? National Geographic Education.
• National Centers for Environmental Information. (n.d.). U.S. Tornadoes: Tornado Alley. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
• National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (2023). Weather vs. Climate: What’s the Difference? National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI).
• National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (2023). Weather systems and patterns. NOAA Education Resource Collections.
• NOAA Science On a Sphere. (n.d.). Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification (2007). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
• Ritter, M. E. (2020). The physical environment: An introduction to physical geography. (L. Pitts, Ed.).
• ThoughtCo. (2023). Understanding High and Low Air Pressure Systems.

Multimedia

• Read the Met Office’s What is climate change? to learn how long-term changes in Earth’s climate affect weather patterns, natural systems, and human communities. This resource connects climate science to broader physical geography concepts such as atmosphere, temperature, and environmental change.
• Watch the U.S. Geological Survey’s Climate change 101 to learn the basic science of climate change and how scientists study long-term environmental change. This video connects climate systems, atmospheric processes, and human influence to physical geography.
• Listen to National Public Radio’s Climate connections radio series to learn how climate change affects environments, communities, and daily life. This audio resource connects climate science to real-world examples and public understanding of environmental change.
• Explore GBH Forum Network’s Climate change lecture series to hear scholars, scientists, and public speakers discuss climate science, environmental change, and related social impacts. This resource helps students connect climate change concepts to public education, expert perspectives, and real-world environmental issues.
• Explore National Public Radio’s Global warming news series to learn how climate change affects environments, communities, and public life. This resource connects climate science to current events and real-world environmental change.
• Explore National Public Radio’s Climate section to learn how climate science connects to current events, environmental change, and community impacts. This resource helps students relate physical geography concepts to real-world reporting.
• Watch the U.S. Geological Survey’s What's happening to Alaska's glaciers? to learn how glaciers respond to climate change and other environmental factors. This video connects glacier behavior, landscape change, and long-term climate patterns to physical geography.

Readings

• Read NASA Earth Observatory’s Paleoclimatology: Introduction to learn how scientists study past climates using evidence such as ice cores, sediments, and fossils. This resource connects climate history, environmental change, and scientific evidence to physical geography.
• Explore NASA Langley Research Center’s Albedo values to learn how different Earth surfaces reflect varying amounts of solar energy. This resource helps students connect albedo to temperature patterns, climate processes, land cover, and Earth’s energy balance.
• Explore NASA Earthdata’s Albedo to learn how different Earth surfaces reflect solar energy and how that affects temperature, climate, and land-surface processes. This resource connects albedo to Earth’s energy balance and environmental change.
• Read The Indian monsoon: Nature's pulse and nation's lifeline to learn how seasonal rainfall patterns shape climate, agriculture, water supply, and daily life in India. This resource connects regional climate systems to human dependence on the physical environment.
• Read Carnegie Mellon University’s Climate change: Managing solar radiation to explore how changing incoming solar energy could influence Earth’s climate. This resource connects climate systems, energy balance, and environmental decision-making to physical geography.
• Explore NASA Science’s Climate change to learn how scientists study Earth’s changing climate and its effects on natural systems. This resource connects atmosphere, temperature, oceans, ice, and human activity to physical geography.
• Read NASA Earthdata’s Climate clues in the ice to learn how ice preserves evidence about Earth’s past climate. This resource connects ice cores, atmospheric records, and long-term environmental change to physical geography.
• Read John Houghton’s Global Warming: The complete briefing to explore the science and evidence behind global warming and climate change. This resource connects atmospheric processes, climate evidence, and environmental impacts to physical geography.
• Explore the National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) to access climate, weather, ocean, and environmental data. This resource connects Earth system science, long-term records, and environmental observation to physical geography.