22.8: Chapter 22 Summary and Key Term Check

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22.1 What Are Geological Resources?

Geological resources are naturally occurring materials that humans extract and use, organized into three broad categories: energy resources such as coal, oil, natural gas, and uranium; metals such as gold, copper, iron, and lithium; and nonmetallic resources such as sand, gravel, cement, and salt. These resources carry economic, cultural, and spiritual significance across different communities, and decisions about their extraction involve ecological, economic, and social tradeoffs that are not shared equally.

22.2 Mining in the U.S. and California

Mining is among the oldest human activities in North America, predating European contact by thousands of years. The 1848 California Gold Rush triggered one of the largest mass migrations in American history and left a lasting environmental legacy. Today the United States produces approximately $112 billion in nonfuel mineral commodities annually, with construction materials accounting for more than half of total production value.

22.3 Metallic Resources

The proportions of metals in ore deposits are typically hundreds to thousands of times higher than background levels in average rock, and significant geological concentration is required to form a viable deposit. Deposit types covered in this chapter include placer deposits, lode (hydrothermal vein) deposits, porphyry deposits, Carlin-type gold deposits, banded iron formations, and sandstone-hosted uranium deposits. Mining methods range from open-pit to underground extraction depending on deposit depth, shape, and grade. At most mines, ore processing generates tailings and waste rock that contain pyrite; when exposed to oxygen and water, pyrite generates acid rock drainage (ARD), which can carry toxic metals into surrounding watersheds.

22.4 Nonmetallic Mineral Deposits

Nonmetallic resources are essential to infrastructure and agriculture. Major industrial minerals include aggregate (sand and gravel) for construction, limestone for cement production, evaporite minerals such as halite and gypsum for industrial and agricultural uses, and quarried rock for building materials.

22.5 Fossil Fuels

The main fossil fuels are coal, oil, and gas. Coal forms in wet terrestrial environments where organic matter accumulates under oxygen-poor conditions; burial depth and temperature determine coal grade, from lignite to anthracite. Oil and gas originate from marine micro-organisms buried in seafloor sediments; at burial depths of roughly 2 to 4 km, organic matter converts to oil, and at greater depths to thermogenic gas. Both migrate from source rocks into reservoir rocks and can be trapped by structural features such as anticlines and faults. Unconventional fossil fuels include oil sands, shale gas extracted by hydraulic fracturing, and coal-bed methane.

22.6 Nuclear Energy

Nuclear fission releases energy by splitting heavy atoms such as uranium-235, generating heat used to produce steam and drive electricity-generating turbines. Fission reactors require controlled chain reactions managed by moderators and control rods. Nuclear energy produces no carbon dioxide during generation but does produce long-lived radioactive waste requiring secure storage. Uranium is mined, processed into yellowcake, and enriched to increase its concentration of U-235 before being fabricated into reactor fuel. The United States generates approximately 18 to 19 percent of its electricity from nuclear power.

22.7 Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy comes from heat within the Earth, sourced from original planetary formation and ongoing radioactive decay. It is most accessible where heat flow is elevated, typically near active volcanoes and tectonic plate boundaries. High-temperature resources can generate electricity directly through flash steam or binary cycle systems; lower-temperature resources are used for direct heating. California's Geysers complex in the Mayacamas Mountains is the largest geothermal power facility in the world, supplying electricity to much of Northern California. Geo-exchange systems use the stable shallow-ground temperature to provide energy-efficient heating and cooling, though they rely on solar energy stored in the ground rather than Earth's internal heat.

Key Term Check

What key term from Chapter 22 is each card describing? Turn the card to check your answer.

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