14: Pandemic Diseases and Drug Discovery - Under Construction
- Page ID
- 34469
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\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)How can I use this chapter?
Many might think that biochemistry and climate change are unrelated. They are with respect to causation. However, the effects of climate change on the biosphere need to be understood for many reasons. Knowing these effects might convince people to support actions to mitigate the worst effects of climate change. Understanding biochemical responses to climate change gives us an opportunity to make the biosphere more resilient to increased temperatures and conditions such as drought and floods. We could develop strategies to reduce the potential for future pandemics, which are likely with a changing climate.
The primary cause of current climate change is the burning of fossil fuels and the release of CO2 into the atmosphere, which warms the planet and causes collateral climate effects. Other causes include CO2 released from cement production and methane, another greenhouse gas, released from fossil fuel production. Burning fossil fuels also causes pollution, which sickens and kills millions each year. Other human activities, such as corporate farming, deforestation, habitat changes, production of plastics, and widespread use of herbicides and pesticides, all synergize to have negative effects on what is now called "One Health", the collective health of humans, animals, and the biosphere. We know and need to act on the fact that harm to any part of the biosphere affects us all.
This chapter is divided into four main parts.
- Part 1 (Sections 01A, 01B, 2, and 3) offers a deep dive into the causes of climate change and how we construct past and predict future CO2 and temperature values. These sections contain little biochemistry per se. They are presented so students can understand how we know the relationships between climate, CO2, and temperature. A second goal is to allow students to rebut common misconceptions and disinformation that minimize the causes and extent of climate change. In reality, people are not moved by mere data and information, so Part 1 can be presented just as background for interested readers. The rest of the sections focus on using biochemistry to understand the biological effects of climate change on organisms and ways to mitigate its worst effects.
- Part 2 (Sections 4-10) focuses on the production and use of biofuels to decrease our reliance on fossil fuels. The basic hope for many forms of biofuel is that CO2 can be removed from the atmosphere (by organisms or chemical means) as a feedstock for biofuels and then converted to fuels (like ethanol), which, on burning, return an equivalent amount of CO2 to the atmosphere. 1 CO2 is removed, and 1 CO2 is returned to the atmosphere with net zero emission! Unfortunately, this accounting is inadequate, as the net CO2 emissions over the whole life-cycle of biofuel production and combustion must be considered, and when that happens, it may be that corn bioethanol (for example) is not much better, and possibly even worse, than burning fossil fuels. Of course, it would cause zero net emissions if the CO2 emitted from burning is captured, but this would apply to fossil fuels as well. In addition, opportunity costs, such as the loss of potential cropland to feed people, are often not considered. These "applied" sections have a great deal of biochemistry as well as some organic chemistry that students have previously encountered.
- Part 3 (Sections 11-14) focuses more on the biological effects of higher temperatures, pollution from fossil fuel use, and other climate effects on biomolecules, organisms, and, ultimately, human health.
- Part 4 (Sections 16-18) explains how we can use biochemistry, molecular biology, genetic engineering, and synthetic biology to capture more carbon, use less fertilizer, make plants more resilient to climate change, and make manufacturing greener.
This text complements the material presented in Chapter 32: Biochemistry and Climate Change, which illustrates the need for interdisciplinary solutions.
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To facilitate access for both instructors and students to climate change-relevant examples in Chapter 32, this clickable Climate Change and Biochemistry icon will be placed throughout Fundamentals of Biochemistry by climate change-relevant topics. |
Other important climate change books
Bending the Curve: Climate Change Solutions by et al. Ramanathan, Veerabhadran et al. is a text that presents 10 climate change mitigation strategies using science, societal transformation, governance, economics, technology, and ecosystem management. "Bending the curve" was first used during the early years of the COVID pandemic. In climate change, it means bending the CO2 atmospheric curve and the resulting global temperature curve after a peak value is reached to reach values less detrimental to human and biosphere life. Key themes emerge from the book:
- "There is still time to bend the curve.
- Bending the curve will require interdisciplinary solutions.
- Bending the curve requires a radical shift in attitude.
- Technology, market mechanisms, and policy need to be a part of the solution"
Books by Hannah Ritchie from Our World in Data:
- Clearing the Air: A Hopeful Guide to Solving Climate Change in 50 Questions and Answers: Clear, simple answers to the most common and vexing questions about climate change that we can take action on right now.
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Not the End of the World: How We Can Be the First Generation to Build a Sustainable Planet: A pragmatic guide on focusing action, such as transitioning energy and reducing food waste, to build a livable future for all.
Key Climate Change Graphs from Chapter 32
( Last update: 2/22/26)
1. Science of Climate Change
- CO2 in the atmosphere: 800,000 BCE to Now - Interactive graph from Our World in Data
- Methane (CH4) concentration in the atmosphere: 800,000 BCE to Now - Interactive graph from Our World in Data
- CO2 and Temperature over the last 800,000 Years - LibreText. Data from Antarctic Ice Cores Revised 800K YrCO2 Data. Bereiter, B. et al, J. http://ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/study/17975
- Combo CO2 and Temperature - 1000 to present (Data and data sources from the 2 Degrees Institute)
- Temperature of the planet over the last 500 million years - Wikimedia
- Simulated northern hemisphere temperature changes, smoothed with an 11-year running mean, relative to AD 950–1250 - J. Space Weather Space Climate, 7, 2017
- Total GHG emissions from fuel combustion by product, World: IEA
- Greenhouse gases by economic sector in the US - Pie Chart: EPA
- Greenhouse gas emissions by sector, World, 2023: Our World in Data
- ExxonMobil's Global Warming Projection Hidden from the World: Science Magazine
- CO2 concentration (black circles) and the δ13C (brown circles) from 1000 to 2010 - Proof that post-industrial rise in CO2 from burning fossil fuels: Rubino et al., JGR: Atmospheres, 2013.
- Climate Shift For Today - Land: Probabilities that anomalies in land temperature can be attributed to climate change. Climate Central (Attribution Science
- Mapped: How climate change affects extreme weather around the world. (Attribution Science). CarbonBrief
- Maps and Data: NOAA
2. Future Projections for Earth's Climate: What a difference a degree makes!
- Climate Interactive Lab Interactive Map - See worldwide temperature and precipitation projections for different levels of temperature increase. IPCC Working Group I (WGI): Sixth Assessment Report
- University of Chicago Climate Impact Map for future warming. Temperature increases with different emissions scenarios
- University of Chicago Climate Impact Map - Future Deaths with increasing temperature
- CalAdapt Climate Tools: projections for two possible climate futures for California, one in which emissions peak around 2040 and then decline (RCP 4.5) and another in which emissions continue to rise throughout the 21st century (RCP 8.50
- CalAdapt - Extreme Precipitation Events - Specific for California
- Climate Map for Probable Futures: non-profit climate literacy initiative - effects of heat, cold, humidity, precipitation, dryness
- Tipping Points: Carbon Brief
- Earth System Tipping Points: Global Tipping Points
- Positive Tipping Points: Global Tipping Points
- How long would it take for the Earth to cool if we stopped emitting CO2 now: IPCC 6th Assessment Report. CO2 would fall from the present value of around 430 ppm to 330 ppm, a value last seen around 1900, yet the temperature change (since the Industrial Revolution) drops from the present increase of about 1.5 0C (2.7 0F) to a value of about 1.3 0C (2.34 0F) above the preindustrial level. Hence elevated temperatures are "baked" into the system for at least 100 years even if we stop emitting now!
- Copernicus Climate Data with Projections with rotating globe
- Climate Pulse: Present, Monthly and Yearly Data
- Copernicus Interactive Climate Atlas: Climate Data from 1850 to now and projections for future changes by 0C, and by climate model
- ERA Explorer: access to over 85 years of global climate data
3. Climate Change and the Oceans
- Climate Shift For Today - Oceans: Probabilities that anomalies in ocean temperature can be attributed to climate change. Climate Central
- Heat Content in the top 700 meters of the ocean - Our World in Data
- Global sea level rise from 1900 to now -
- Ocean acidification: mean seawater pH, Hawaii - Our World in Data
- Arctic Yearly Mean Sea Ice Extent (million km²) - Copernicus Marine Service
- Antarctic Yearly Mean Sea Ice Extent (million km²) - Copernicus Marine Service
- Global Yearly Ocean CO2 Uptake (PgC) - Copernicus Marine Service
- Climate impacts of a collapsed Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) under different global warming scenarios (link not working 2/25/26)
- Land below 3 feet of water: Climate Central
4. CO2 Emissions - US vs China
- Annual CO2 emissions from fossil fuels and industry: US, China, et al. - Our World in Data
- CO2 emissions per capita: US, China, et al. - Our World in Data
- Cumulative CO2 emissions since the Industrial Revolution: US, China, et al. - Our World in Data
5. Agricultural Effects
- Food: greenhouse gas emissions across the supply chain: Our World in Data
- Greenhouse Gases per 100 grams of protein: Our World in Data
6. Biofuels
- Bioenergy Fuel Production - World: Our World in Data
- Biofuels vs Solar Panels: Our World in Data
- Shares of cereals aliquoted for food, animal feed, or fuel: Our World in Data
- GHG emission intensities for corn ethanol compared to before the RFS. PNAS
- Changes in corn agriculture and pollution after the adoption of the Renewable Fuel Standards in the US. PNAS
7. Climate Change, Fossil Fuels, and Biosphere/Human Health
- Loss of 3 billion or 29% birds in North America since 1970: Science. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aaw1313
- Living Planet Index, World
- What are the safest and cleanest forms of energy? Our World in Data
- Death Rate Per Unit of Electricity Production. Our World in Data
- Death rate from particulate matter air pollution vs. PM2.5 concentration: Our World in Data
- Air pollution deaths from fossil fuels: Our World in Data
- Sources of air pollutants: Our World in Data. Scroll to see pollutant sources
8. Power from Electricity vs Fossil Fuels: The Energy Transition
- Electricity Generated from Different Power Supply: Total and Capacity from Claude. (Download and open file)
- Total electricity generated in each country or region, measured in terawatt-hours: Our World in Data
- Electricity production by source (terawatt-hours): US, China, India, EU
- Share of electricity production by source: US | China | India | Europe
- Share of electricity from low-carbon sources - US, China, India, EU
- Share of electricity from coal: Our World in data
- The Energy Transition in 5 Charts: RMI
9. Internal Combustion Engines vs Battery Electric Vehicles
- Efficiency Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) vs Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV) - IEA
- Comparative life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of a mid-size BEV and ICE vehicle
- Efficiency of ICE vs BEV - Graphic from Yale Climate Communication
- Global electric car stock, 2013-2023: IEA 2024
- Electric car registrations and sales share in China, United States and Europe, 2018-2023. IEA
10. Economics
- Explicit Fossil Fuel Subsidies for World, 2010-2023: Our World in Data
- Worldwide subsidies in US $billion and in % global GDP. The bar graphs are for US $biillons, and the circles and triangles are for % global GDP. IMF.
- 7 trillion fossil fuel subsidies total 2022: Our World in Data
- Energy Subsidies and Climate Change: En-Roads
- U.S. Billion-Dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
- Crude Oil Prices (1946-2026) | Crude Oil Prices (annotated) 1968-2022
- Solar Photovoltaics Prices US 1975-2024: Our World in Data
- Levelised Cost of Solar, World: Our World in Data
- Price of lithium-ion battery cells, 1991 to 2024: Our World in Data
- Combined learning curves for electric motors, computing all needed for transitions to a country driven by electricity and not fossil fuels
- Recycling as mining: Recycling Batteries as a source of critical minerals | Cyclic Materials
- Recycling Solar panels as a source of materials
- Solar cells photovoltaics panels: Background, Manufacture - IEA
11. Climate Solutions
- En-Roads: Climate Solutions Simulator
- Energy Policy Simulator
12. Solar Energy - Rooftop
- Australia leads the way
- Simplify Solar from Third Act: Bring the solar revolution home, with smarter local rules to make rooftop & plug-in power easy, fast, and affordable
- SolarApp+: Developed in collaboration with local governments and the solar industry to advance clean energy technologies to speeds solar permitting
13. Plugin (balcony) Solar
- SB-868 Electricity: portable solar generation devices (aka Plug and Play Solar Act) for California
- Bright Saver - Mission is to build a movement where plug-in solar is affordable and accessible to all
- Solar Rights Alliance - Informs about threats or opportunities to solar investment, and provides people with simple ways you can make their voice heard
- Solar United Neighbors - a national organization dedicated to representing the needs and interests of solar owners and clean energy supporters
- California Solar and Storage Association - works to put in place and defend solar and storage policies and programs that have made California one of the biggest and most successful solar markets in the world.
- Examples: Utah Clean Energy | Utah H.B. 340 Solar Power Amendments | Germany's balcony (plugin) solar boom | Plug-In Solar Info
14. Additional National and California Legislative Climate and Clean Energy Initiatives
- SB-222 Residential heat pump systems: water heaters and HVAC: installations (CA)
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