13.7: Summary
- Page ID
- 41981
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\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)To address both climate change and the degradation in urban air quality, paradigm shifts in the electric and transportation sectors began at the turn of the century. However, they will need to evolve over decades before settling into the new paradigm. The principal attributes of the new paradigm are (1) the generation of electricity from diurnally varying and intermittent renewable wind and solar; (2) energy storage, to capture and later use energy from otherwise curtailed renewable resources; (3) the integration and electrification of transportation as a challenging load (on the one hand) and a potential source for the grid to tap for stored energy (on the other hand); and (4) smart grid control and management.
Two pathways are emerging, differing only in (1) the need for fuel cell electric vehicles, (2) the amount of energy storage required, and (3) the need for 24/7, clean, load-following renewable power generation in order to manage the diurnally varying and intermittent renewables.
Electric vehicles
Pathway 1 The opinion of many is that BEVs are sufficient and, with advances in battery technology, the energy density will dramatically increase, the charging time will dramatically decrease, and the weight will dramatically decrease to provide the range, fueling time, and size provided historically by petroleum-fueled internal combustion vehicles.
Pathway 2 Others believe that, while BEVs have a role, FCEVs and PFCEVs are needed to provide the range and refueling time to which the public is accustomed with conventional gasoline and diesel internal combustion vehicles. FC technology is also suitable for medium-duty vehicles (such as delivery trucks) and for heavy-duty vehicles (that is, buses and large trucks) where BEV technology is limited or insufficient. FC technology is applicable as well for off-road construction vehicles, locomotives, and ships.
Energy storage
Pathway 1 The opinion of many is that electric storage batteries and pumped hydro are sufficient and, with advances in electric battery technology, the energy density will evolve to absorb the high levels of curtailed energy projected as the grid builds out.
Pathway 2 Others believe that a renewable hydrogen “battery” is required to
- Provide the massive storage capability to complement electric batteries in absorbing the high levels of curtailed energy projected as the grid builds out.
- Buffer the self-discharging character of electric batteries.
- Provide the capability of diurnal and seasonal shifts in energy stored and energy required.
- Provide zero-carbon renewable hydrogen transportation fuel for powering fuel cell vehicles on the transportation sector.
24/7, clean, load-following power generation
Pathway 1 The opinion of many is that technological advances in electric batteries will provide, along with V2G, the energy storage and ramping to manage and buffer the variability of solar and wind and thereby render 24/7, clean, load-following power generation unnecessary.
Pathway 2 Others believe power generation will be required that is clean (that is, emitting neither GHGs nor criteria pollutants), 24/7 (that is, around the clock, every day of the week), and load following (that is, able to ramp up and down to meet both load demand and diurnal variation and intermittency of wind and solar) to complement and buffer the variability of solar and wind and achieve the goal of a reliable and resilient 100% renewable grid and a 100% renewable transportation system.
The goal of this chapter is to present the key considerations necessary to achieve 100% renewable electricity and transportation sectors (to address climate change) commensurate with zero emission of criteria pollutants (to address degraded urban air quality) while achieving fuel independence. To this end, two pathways have been described. Whether pathway 1 (Figure 13.3.1a) or pathway 2 (Figures 13.3.1b and 13.6.4) or another form is realized in the decades to come will depend upon factors such as (1) the evolution and practice of technology, market dynamics, and social dynamics (that is, public support and acceptance); (2) the impacts of climate change and degraded air quality; and (3) policies of the world’s governments.